Any list of the world’s greatest sights would certainly include the Taj Mahal. Perhaps the most famous building in the world and considered by many the most beautiful. The Taj has inspired visitors for three and a half centuries. Poet Rabindranath Tagore wrote, “Let the splendor of the diamond, pearl and ruby vanish like the magic shimmer of the rainbow. Only let this one teardrop, the Taj Mahal, glisten spotlessly bright on the cheek of time.” Rudyard Kipling referred to it as “the embodiment of all things pure.” Emperor Shah Jehan, the man who built the Taj, said, “The sight of this mansion creates sorrowing sighs and makes the sun and moon shed tears from their eyes." The crowning jewel of Hindu-Islamic architecture, the Taj was built as a mausoleum for Jehan’s favorite wife, Mumtaz Mahal. In the centuries since its building, the Taj has become the world’s most revered monument to love.
Mumtaz Mahal died giving birth to their 14th child in 1631. The emperor’s overwhelming grief is well documented in court records as well as in his personal writings. Jehan lost all enthusiasm for administration and instead immersed himself in the details of building the Taj. Construction took 12 years (10 more to complete the entire complex). The building required several engineering innovations such as a huge brick scaffold that mirrored the tomb, a 15-kilometer earthen ramp and special wagons to transport marble, and an elaborate post-and-beam pulley system for lifting the blocks into place. Building materials were brought from all over India and Asia: white marble from Rajasthan, jasper from Punjab, jade from China, turquoise from Tibet, Lapis lazuli from Afghanistan, sapphire from Sri Lanka, and carnelian from Arabia. Twenty-eight types of precious and semi-precious stones were used for inlaid decoration. The labor force consisted of 20,000 workers, countless specialists recruited from near and distant lands, and more than 1000 elephants.
The Taj Mahal’s symmetry, elegance, and perfect proportions are legendary. The visitor’s first view after entering the complex (a distance of about 400 yards) is truly breathtaking. The harmonious perfection seems to touch something of the eternal in the heart of the viewer. The basic design elements are Persian with a Mughal flair. The tomb sits on a square plinth and consists of a large, multi-chambered cube with chamfered corners (essentially an unequal octagon) topped by the famous onion dome, itself topped by a finial. Each of the long sides boasts a central, massive pishtaq (vaulted archway) framed by echoing, smaller, stacked pairs of pishtaqs. Stacked pishtaqs adorn the chamfered corners as well and four minarets anchor the plinth corners. The overall effect is beautiful serene, and majestic. But as is often the case with truly inspiring architecture, the Taj is equally impressive in its intricate details. The exterior is beautifully decorated by passages from the Quran in pietra dura inlaid calligraphy. The interior work is more delicate, with inlaid precious and semi-precious stones. Additionally, the cenotaphs of Jahan and Mahal are surrounded by intricately carved marble screens. The cenotaphs themselves are decorated with detailed inlays and calligraphic inscriptions.
The garden complex that surrounds the Taj is often overlooked but is beautiful in and of itself. A classic charbagh (Mughal garden), it contains lovely flower gardens and lawns, geometrically divided by reflecting pools and walkways. The impressive sandstone buildings that flank the Taj are a mosque and a Jawab. Jawab literally means “answer” and its primary purpose is architectural balance for the complex.
Myths about the Taj are many. The most common is that Shah Jahan planned a twin mausoleum across the river, a mirror of the Taj in black marble. It is a dramatic and fanciful concept, but unfortunately is not true. Nor is the oft repeated rumor that Jahan ordered the death or mutilation on the architects and craftsmen who built the Taj in order that its secrets remain a mystery. Other false legends include the Taj sinking, that it is a Hindu temple, and that the British ordered it to be demolished at one time.
India, a land of enchantment, boasts many impressive sights but the Taj Mahal stands apart. A British artist once observed, "It appears like a perfect pearl on an azure ground. The effect is such I have never experienced from any other work of art."
Friday, April 30, 2010
Borobudur
Borobudur is widely regarded as Southeast Asia’s second most significant archeological site (after Angkor Wat) and is Indonesia’s most popular tourist site. Once referred to as “a mountain of a thousand statues” it is a massive 8th-century Buddhist temple, the largest and most unusual in the world. It is the scale of the complex that most impresses. Borobudur is built from two million cubic feet of stone blocks, forming an enormous hill-like stupa (bell-shaped structure, symbol of enlightenment and shrine to the Buddha) of concentric layers. The base perimeter exceeds 1500 feet and the structure rises to a height of 115 feet. Six square terraces are topped by 3 circular terraces, all crowned by a single large stupa. Stairways lead pilgrims and visitors past 2672 carved panels, 500+ Buddha statues, hundreds of carved balustrades, and several ceremonially carved gateways. The dramatic setting of the temple mount adds to the experience. It is located in a lush valley surrounded by verdant mountains and two volcanoes.
Although the enormity of the temple is impressive, the structure is equally intriguing for its design objectives and the details of its decoration. Seen from above, the hill temple portrays a colossal tantric Mandela, a model of the Buddhist cosmos in stone. Pilgrims visiting the complex are led by staircases and galleries on a metaphorical journey beginning with the Kamadhatu (world of desires), continues up through the Rupadhatu (world of forms), and arrives finally at the Arupadhatu (formless world). Borobudur is a 3D guide to Enlightenment.
The “Pilgrim’s Walk” begins with a series of relief panels on the base of the monument. All told, the monument contains 1460 narrative panels (and 1212 decorative panels; a total of 27,000 sq. ft.) in which sculptors have carved a virtual textbook of Buddhist doctrine as well as aspects of Javanese life 1000 years ago. As noted above, these first scenes depict the Kamadhatu, the physical world, with many images of passion and desire. The good are rewarded by incarnation as higher life forms while the bad are reincarnated as lesser life forms. Pilgrims next enter the Rupadhatu level, represented by the 2nd through 5th terraces. They follow the galleries in a clockwise direction, winding up terrace by terrace past hundreds of panels. The second terrace tells the story of the Buddha’s birth (Lalitavistara) plus some stories of his previous lives (Jataka) and stories of other legendary figures (Avadana). The Jataka and Avadana continue onto the third terrace but give way to the Gandavyuha, the story of the Buddha’s search for Perfect Wisdom which continues throughout the fourth and fifth terraces. The last three round terraces represent the Arupadhatu. Pilgrims ascend from the Rupadhatu level where men still interacted with forms (narrative panels) to the Arupadhatu level where decorations cease, symbolically representing the formless world.
In addition to the relief panels in the galleries, visitors encounter many statues of the Buddha. The statues, sitting cross-legged in the lotus position, can be found in niches throughout the first five levels of the temple. There are 432 statues on the lower levels. The three circular terraces are adorned with 72 small latticed stupas, each containing a Buddha statue. The peaceful Buddhas in their private bell-shaped stupas constitute the most iconic image of Borobudur. The crowning stupa is empty and there is no evidence to suggest what might have been originally held within.
There is no written record of who built Borobudur. It is estimated that its construction commenced around 800 AD and took about 75 years to complete. So too the facts surrounding its abandonment remain a mystery. Around the turn of the millennium the center of Javanese power shifted to the east and a series of volcanic eruptions rocked central Java. Many scholars believe this to be the time of abandonment but it may have happened when the local population converted to Islam in the 15th century. Borobudur was “rediscovered” by an expedition sent by the British Governor-General of Java, Thomas Raffles. The complex was completely covered by ash and vegetation and it would be 20 years before the entire temple mount was unearthed. Unfortunately, after its discovery by westerners, nothing was done to protect the monument and much damage was done by souvenir hunters (43 of original 504 Buddha statues are missing, 300 of those remaining are damaged, mostly headless) and by the hot and wet climate (after the protection of sediment and vegetation was removed). A restoration project from 1907-1911 cleaned the monument but did not resolve a drainage problem that threatened to undermine the structure. In the 1970’s a UNESCO restoration solved the drainage problem and stabilized the foundation and Borobudur was listed as a World Heritage site in 1991. Borobudur is visited as part of the 3-day Jogjakarta excursion on the Beautiful Bali tour.
Although the enormity of the temple is impressive, the structure is equally intriguing for its design objectives and the details of its decoration. Seen from above, the hill temple portrays a colossal tantric Mandela, a model of the Buddhist cosmos in stone. Pilgrims visiting the complex are led by staircases and galleries on a metaphorical journey beginning with the Kamadhatu (world of desires), continues up through the Rupadhatu (world of forms), and arrives finally at the Arupadhatu (formless world). Borobudur is a 3D guide to Enlightenment.
The “Pilgrim’s Walk” begins with a series of relief panels on the base of the monument. All told, the monument contains 1460 narrative panels (and 1212 decorative panels; a total of 27,000 sq. ft.) in which sculptors have carved a virtual textbook of Buddhist doctrine as well as aspects of Javanese life 1000 years ago. As noted above, these first scenes depict the Kamadhatu, the physical world, with many images of passion and desire. The good are rewarded by incarnation as higher life forms while the bad are reincarnated as lesser life forms. Pilgrims next enter the Rupadhatu level, represented by the 2nd through 5th terraces. They follow the galleries in a clockwise direction, winding up terrace by terrace past hundreds of panels. The second terrace tells the story of the Buddha’s birth (Lalitavistara) plus some stories of his previous lives (Jataka) and stories of other legendary figures (Avadana). The Jataka and Avadana continue onto the third terrace but give way to the Gandavyuha, the story of the Buddha’s search for Perfect Wisdom which continues throughout the fourth and fifth terraces. The last three round terraces represent the Arupadhatu. Pilgrims ascend from the Rupadhatu level where men still interacted with forms (narrative panels) to the Arupadhatu level where decorations cease, symbolically representing the formless world.
In addition to the relief panels in the galleries, visitors encounter many statues of the Buddha. The statues, sitting cross-legged in the lotus position, can be found in niches throughout the first five levels of the temple. There are 432 statues on the lower levels. The three circular terraces are adorned with 72 small latticed stupas, each containing a Buddha statue. The peaceful Buddhas in their private bell-shaped stupas constitute the most iconic image of Borobudur. The crowning stupa is empty and there is no evidence to suggest what might have been originally held within.
There is no written record of who built Borobudur. It is estimated that its construction commenced around 800 AD and took about 75 years to complete. So too the facts surrounding its abandonment remain a mystery. Around the turn of the millennium the center of Javanese power shifted to the east and a series of volcanic eruptions rocked central Java. Many scholars believe this to be the time of abandonment but it may have happened when the local population converted to Islam in the 15th century. Borobudur was “rediscovered” by an expedition sent by the British Governor-General of Java, Thomas Raffles. The complex was completely covered by ash and vegetation and it would be 20 years before the entire temple mount was unearthed. Unfortunately, after its discovery by westerners, nothing was done to protect the monument and much damage was done by souvenir hunters (43 of original 504 Buddha statues are missing, 300 of those remaining are damaged, mostly headless) and by the hot and wet climate (after the protection of sediment and vegetation was removed). A restoration project from 1907-1911 cleaned the monument but did not resolve a drainage problem that threatened to undermine the structure. In the 1970’s a UNESCO restoration solved the drainage problem and stabilized the foundation and Borobudur was listed as a World Heritage site in 1991. Borobudur is visited as part of the 3-day Jogjakarta excursion on the Beautiful Bali tour.
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